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[Wiki Metafísica Inglés]
Metaphysical art (Italian: Pittura metafisica) is the name of an Italian art movement, created by Giorgio de Chirico and Carlo Carrà. Their dream-like paintings of squares typical of idealized Italian cities, as well as apparently casual juxtapositions of objects, represented a visionary world which engaged most immediately with the unconscious mind, beyond physical reality, hence the name. The metaphysical movement provided significant impetus for the development of Dada and Surrealism.
Carrà had been among the leading painters of Futurism. De Chirico had been working in Paris, admired by Apollinaire and avant-garde artists as a painter of mysterious urban scenes and still lifes.The two painters already knew of each other and formed an immediate alliance, further encouraged by the poetry of Alberto Savinio, de Chirico's younger brother. Aside from De Chirico and Carrà, other painters associated with metaphysical art include Savinio, Giorgio Morandi and Filippo De Pisis.
Metaphysical art sprang from the urge to explore the imagined inner life of familiar objects when represented out of their explanatory contexts: their solidity, their separateness in the space allotted to them, the secret dialogue that may take place between them. This alertness to the simplicity of ordinary things "which points to a higher, more hidden state of being" (Carrà) was linked to an awareness of such values in the great figures of early Italian painting, notably Giotto and Paolo Uccello about whom Carrà had written in 1915.
In this style of painting, an illogical reality seemed credible. Using a sort of alternative logic, Carrà and de Chirico juxtaposed various ordinary subjects—typically including starkly rendered buildings, classical statues, trains, and mannequins.
Their art, normally seen as purposeful naturalistic representation of figures, objects and actions in a controlled scenic space, could also seem mysteriously still and removed from the ordinary world; in the midst of war it offered a poetic language both inturned and strong and a corrective to the disruptive, fragmenting tendencies within Modernism. This desire to reattach his art to the great Italian past was stronger in Carrà, whose paintings of the time are also more economical and focused than de Chirico's; the latter continued to explore the enigmatic nature of the daily world in a more wide ranging manner.
"Mystery" is the most familiar word of de Chirico. He wrote the following: "there is much more mystery in the shadow of a man walking on a sunny day, than in all religions of the world".
Other painters were affected by their example and ideas, most
notably Morandi. Carrà and de Chirico were together for only a few
months in the spring and summer of 1917; by 1919 both artists had
turned toward an art reflecting their study of the old masters.
The movement, as such, may be said to have dissolved by 1920 but its
reverberations have continued, contributing to the more poetic aspects
of Surrealism and the revival of classicism in the painting of Mario
Sironi and others in the 1920s.
La pintura metafísica (en italiano: Pittura metafísica) es el nombre de un movimiento artístico italiano, creado por Giorgio de Chirico y Carlo Carrà. Usando un estilo realista, pintaron imágenes oníricas de plazas típicas de ciudades italianas idealizadas, así como yuxtaposiciones, aparentemente casuales, de objetos. Su arte representaba un mundo visionario que conectaba de manera casi inmediata con el mundo del inconsciente, más allá de la realidad física, de ahí el nombre. La pintura metafísica proporcionó modelos imitados posteriormente con el desarrollo del dadaísmo y del surrealismo.
Carrà había sido uno de los pintores líderes del futurismo. De Chirico había estado trabajando en París, admirado por Apollinaire y los artistas de vanguardia como un pintor de misteriosas escenas urbanas y bodegones. Los dos pintores ya se conocían y formaron una alianza inmediata, animada por la poesía de Alberto Savinio, el hermano menor de De Chirico. Además de Carrà y De Chirico, otros pintores vinculados al arte metafísico son Savinio, Giorgio Morandi y Filippo De Pisis.
[Wiki Metafísica
Español]
La pintura metafísica surgió del deseo de explorar la vida interior imaginada de objetos cotidianos cuando se los representa fuera de los contextos habituales que sirven para explicarlos: su solidez, su separación en el espacio que se les da, el diálogo secreto que podía tener lugar entre ellos. Esta atención a la simplicidad de las cosas ordinarias «que apunta a un estado del ser más alto, más oculto» se unía a la consciencia de tales valores en las grandes figuras de la primera pintura italiana, en particular, Giotto y Paolo Uccello, sobre quienes Carrà había escrito en 1915.
En este estilo de pintura, una realidad ilógica parece creíble. Usando una especie de lógica alternativa, Carrà y de Chirico yuxtaponían varios temas ordinarios, incluyendo normalmente edificios, estatuas clásicas, trenes y maniquíes.
Su arte, normalmente visto como una representación naturalista de las figuras, los objetos y las acciones en un espacio escénico controlado, puede también parecer misteriosamente quieto y aún así apartado del mundo ordinario; en medio de la guerra ofrecía un lenguaje poético fuerte y un correctivo a las tendencias perjudiciales y fragmentadoras dentro de la modernidad. Este deseo de vincularse de nuevo al gran pasado italiano era más fuerte en Carrà, cuyos cuadros de esta época son también más económicos y centrados que los de Chirico; este último siguió explorando la naturaleza enigmática del mundo cotidiano en un estilo de mayor amplitud.
«Misterio» es la palabra más familiar para de Chirico. Escribió: «Hay más misterio en la sombra de un hombre caminando en un día soleado, que en todas las religiones del mundo».
Otros pintores resultaron afectados por su ejemplo e ideas, entre ellos destacadamente Giorgio Morandi. Carrà y de Chirico estuvieron juntos sólo unos pocos meses en la primavera y el verano de 1917; para el año 1919 ambos artistas se habían vuelto hacia un arte que reflejaba su estudio de los antiguos maestros. el movimiento, como tal, puede considerarse disuelto hacia 1920 pero sus reverberaciones se sintieron durante largo tiempo, contribuyendo tanto a los aspectos más poéticos del surrealismo, considerando los surrealistas a De Chirico como su gran modelo, como al renacer del clasicismo en la pintura de Mario Sironi y otros durante los años 1920.
[Wiki Metafísica Alemán]Die Pittura Metafisica (Metaphysische Malerei) ist eine italienische Strömung der Malerei, die sich etwa ab 1910 entwickelte und bis in die Mitte der 1920er-Jahre anhielt. Der Name kommt von Metaphysik, was die Lehre von den Gründen und Zusammenhängen des Seienden bedeutet. Im Jahre 1917 wurde von Giorgio de Chirico, sowie seinem Bruder Alberto Savinio und dem Futuristen Carlo Carrà die Scuola Metafisica in Ferrara gegründet.
Als Charakteristik der Pittura Metafisica kann gelten, dass das Übersinnliche, das nur in Denkakten zu Erkennende und das über die Sinnenwelt hinaus liegende Geistige, das Transzendente, zu einem bildnerischen System erhoben wird. Die Bildinhaltsfolgen liegen dabei oft jenseits des sinnlich Erfahrbaren und eine zweite geheimnisvolle Wirklichkeit verbirgt sich hinter den sichtbaren Dingen.
Dargestellt wird die Malerei der Pittura Metafisica in Form nahezu
bühnenhafter, meist menschenleerer Plätze. Veränderte Proportionen,
unrealistische Farbgebung und die unkorrekte Wiedergabe von Licht und
Schatten, sowie die Verwendung mehrerer Fluchtpunkte
prägen dieses Genre. Durch das Fehlen der Luftperspektive erscheinen
zahlreiche Gemälde wie in einem Vakuum. Inhaltlich wird durch die
vielfach dargestellte Umwertung der bestehenden Werte eine Verbindung
zum Widersprüchlichen hergestellt.
[Wiki Surrealismo Inglés]
Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members.
Surrealist works feature the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions and non sequitur; however, many Surrealist artists and writers regard their work as an expression of the philosophical movement first and foremost, with the works being an artifact. Leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was above all a revolutionary movement.
Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities of World War I and the most important center of the movement was Paris. From the 1920s on, the movement spread around the globe, eventually affecting the visual arts, literature, film, and music of many countries and languages, as well as political thought and practice, philosophy and social theory.
World War I scattered the writers and artists who had been based in Paris, and while away from Paris many involved themselves in the Dada movement, believing that excessive rational thought and bourgeois values had brought the terrifying conflict upon the world. The Dadaists protested with anti-rational anti-art gatherings, performances, writing and art works. After the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued.
During the war Surrealism's soon-to-be leader André Breton, who had trained in medicine and psychiatry, served in a neurological hospital where he used the psychoanalytic methods of Sigmund Freud with soldiers who were shell-shocked. He also met the young writer Jacques Vaché and felt that he was the spiritual son of writer and pataphysician Alfred Jarry, and he came to admire the young writer's anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition. Later Breton wrote, "In literature, I am successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most."[1]
Back in Paris, Breton joined in the Dada activities and also started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and Philippe Soupault. They began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the "automatic" writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in Littérature. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields (Les Champs Magnétiques) in 1919. They continued the automatic writing, gathered more artists and writers into the group, and came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada attack on prevailing values. In addition to Breton, Aragon and Soupault the original Surrealists included Paul Éluard, Benjamin Péret, René Crevel, Robert Desnos, Jacques Baron, Max Morise,[2] Marcel Noll, Pierre Naville, Roger Vitrac, Simone Breton, Gala Éluard, Max Ernst, Salvador Dalí, Man Ray, Hans Arp, Georges Malkine, Michel Leiris, Georges Limbour, Antonin Artaud, Raymond Queneau, André Masson, Joan Miró, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Prévert and Yves Tanguy.[3]
As they developed their philosophy they felt that while Dada rejected categories and labels, Surrealism would advocate the idea that ordinary and depictive expressions are vital and important, but that the sense of their arrangement must be open to the full range of imagination according to the Hegelian Dialectic. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin and Herbert Marcuse.
Freud's work with free association, dream analysis and the hidden unconscious was of the utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. However, they embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness or darkness of the mind. (Later the idiosyncratic Salvador Dalí explained it as: "There is only one difference between a madman and me. I am not mad."[2])
The group aimed to revolutionize human experience, including its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects, by freeing people from what they saw as false rationality, and restrictive customs and structures. Breton proclaimed, the true aim of Surrealism is "long live the social revolution, and it alone!" To this goal, at various times surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism.
In 1924 they declared their intents and philosophy with the issuance of the first Surrealist Manifesto. That same year they established the Bureau of Surrealist Research, and began publishing the journal La Révolution surréaliste.
Breton wrote the manifesto of 1924 (another was issued in 1929) that defines the purposes of the group and includes citations of the influences on Surrealism, examples of Surrealist works and discussion of Surrealist automatism. He defined Surrealism as:
Dictionary: Surrealism, n. Pure psychic automatism, by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other manner, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of thought in the absence of all control exercised by reason, outside of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation.
Encyclopedia: Surrealism. Philosophy. Surrealism is based on the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of previously neglected associations, in the omnipotence of dream, in the disinterested play of thought. It tends to ruin once and for all other psychic mechanisms and to substitute itself for them in solving all the principal problems of life.
Shortly after releasing the first Surrealist Manifesto in 1924, the Surrealists published the inaugural issue of La Révolution surréaliste and publication continued into 1929. Pierre Naville and Benjamin Péret were the initial directors of the publication and modeled the format of the journal on the conservative scientific review La Nature. The format was deceiving, and to the Surrealists' delight La Révolution surréaliste was consistently scandalous and revolutionary. The journal focused on writing with most pages densely packed with columns of text, but also included reproductions of art, among them works by Giorgio de Chirico, Max Ernst, André Masson and Man Ray.
The Bureau of Surrealist Research (Centrale Surréaliste) was the Paris office where the Surrealist writers and artists gathered to meet, hold discussions, and conduct interviews with the goal of investigating speech under trance.
The movement in the mid-1920s was characterized by meetings in cafes where the Surrealists played collaborative drawing games, discussed the theories of Surrealism, and developed a variety of techniques such as automatic drawing. Breton initially doubted that visual arts could even be useful in the Surrealist movement since they appeared to be less malleable and open to chance and automatism. This caution was overcome by the discovery of such techniques as frottage and decalcomania.
Soon more visual artists joined Surrealism including Giorgio de Chirico, Salvador Dalí, Enrico Donati, Alberto Giacometti, Valentine Hugo, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Grégoire Michonze, and Luis Buñuel. Though Breton admired Pablo Picasso and Marcel Duchamp and courted them to join the movement, they remained peripheral.[4] More writers also joined, including former Dadaist Tristan Tzara, René Char, Georges Sadoul, André Thirion, and Maurice Heine.
In 1925 an autonomous Surrealist group formed in Brussels. The group included the musician, poet, and artist E.L.T. Mesens, painter and writer René Magritte, Paul Nougé, Marcel Lecomte, Camille Goemans, and André Souris. In 1927 they were joined by the writer Louis Scutenaire. They corresponded regularly with the Paris group, and in 1927 both Goemans and Magritte moved to Paris and frequented Breton's circle.[3] The artists, with their roots in Dada and Cubism, the abstraction of Wassily Kandinsky, Expressionism, and Post-Impressionism, also reached to older "bloodlines" such as Hieronymus Bosch, and the so-called primitive and naive arts.
André Masson's automatic drawings of 1923, are often used as the point of the acceptance of visual arts and the break from Dada, since they reflect the influence of the idea of the unconscious mind. Another example is Giacometti's 1925 Torso, which marked his movement to simplified forms and inspiration from preclassical sculpture.
However, a striking example of the line used to divide Dada and
Surrealism among art experts is the pairing of 1925's Little
Machine Constructed by Minimax Dadamax in Person (Von minimax dadamax
selbst konstruiertes maschinchen)[5]
with The Kiss (Le Baiser)[6]
from 1927 by Ernst.
The first is generally held to have a distance, and erotic subtext,
whereas the second presents an erotic act openly and directly. In the
second the influence of Miró
and the drawing style of Picasso
is visible with the use of fluid curving and intersecting lines and
colour, whereas the first takes a directness that would later be
influential in movements such as Pop art.
Giorgio de Chirico, and his previous development of metaphysical art, was one of the important joining figures between the philosophical and visual aspects of Surrealism. Between 1911 and 1917, he adopted an unornamented depictional style whose surface would be adopted by others later. The Red Tower (La tour rouge) from 1913 shows the stark colour contrasts and illustrative style later adopted by Surrealist painters. His 1914 The Nostalgia of the Poet (La Nostalgie du poete)[7] has the figure turned away from the viewer, and the juxtaposition of a bust with glasses and a fish as a relief defies conventional explanation. He was also a writer whose novel Hebdomeros presents a series of dreamscapes with an unusual use of punctuation, syntax, and grammar designed to create an atmosphere and frame around its images. His images, including set designs for the Ballets Russes, would create a decorative form of Surrealism, and he would be an influence on the two artists who would be even more closely associated with Surrealism in the public mind: Dalí and Magritte. He would, however, leave the Surrealist group in 1928.
In 1924, Miro and Masson applied Surrealism to painting, explicitly leading to the La Peinture Surrealiste exhibition of 1925, held at Gallerie Pierre in Paris, and displaying works by Masson, Man Ray, Klee, Miró, and others. The show confirmed that Surrealism had a component in the visual arts (though it had been initially debated whether this was possible), and techniques from Dada, such as photomontage, were used. The following year, on March 26, 1926 Galerie Surréaliste opened with an exhibition by Man Ray. Breton published Surrealism and Painting in 1928 which summarized the movement to that point, though he continued to update the work until the 1960s.
The first Surrealist work, according to leader Breton, was Magnetic Fields (Les Champs Magnétiques) (May–June 1919). Littérature contained automatist works and accounts of dreams. The magazine and the portfolio both showed their disdain for literal meanings given to objects and focused rather on the undertones, the poetic undercurrents present. Not only did they give emphasis to the poetic undercurrents, but also to the connotations and the overtones which "exist in ambiguous relationships to the visual images."
Because Surrealist writers seldom, if ever, appear to organize their thoughts and the images they present, some people find much of their work difficult to parse. This notion however is a superficial comprehension, prompted no doubt by Breton's initial emphasis on automatic writing as the main route toward a higher reality. But—as in Breton's case—much of what is presented as purely automatic is actually edited and very "thought out". Breton himself later admitted that automatic writing's centrality had been overstated, and other elements were introduced, especially as the growing involvement of visual artists in the movement forced the issue, since automatic painting required a rather more strenuous set of approaches. Thus such elements as collage were introduced, arising partly from an ideal of startling juxtapositions as revealed in Pierre Reverdy's poetry. And—as in Magritte's case (where there is no obvious recourse to either automatic techniques or collage)—the very notion of convulsive joining became a tool for revelation in and of itself. Surrealism was meant to be always in flux—to be more modern than modern—and so it was natural there should be a rapid shuffling of the philosophy as new challenges arose.
Surrealists revived interest in Isidore Ducasse, known by his pseudonym Comte de Lautréamont and for the line "beautiful as the chance meeting on a dissecting table of a sewing machine and an umbrella," and Arthur Rimbaud, two late 19th century writers believed to be the precursors of Surrealism.
Examples of Surrealist literature are Crevel's Mr. Knife Miss Fork (1931), Aragon's Irene's Cunt (1927), Breton's Sur la route de San Romano (1948), Péret's Death to the Pigs (1929), and Artaud's Le Pese-Nerfs (1926).
La Révolution surréaliste continued publication into 1929 with most pages densely packed with columns of text, but also included reproductions of art, among them works by de Chirico, Ernst, Masson, and Man Ray. Other works included books, poems, pamphlets, automatic texts and theoretical tracts.
Early films by Surrealists include:
In the 1920s several composers were influenced by Surrealism, or by individuals in the Surrealist movement. Among them were Bohuslav Martinů, André Souris, and Edgard Varèse, who stated that his work Arcana was drawn from a dream sequence.[citation needed] Souris in particular was associated with the movement: he had a long relationship with Magritte, and worked on Paul Nouge's publication Adieu Marie.
Germaine Tailleferre of the French group Les Six wrote several works which could be considered to be inspired by Surrealism[citation needed], including the 1948 Ballet Paris-Magie (scenario by Lise Deharme), the Operas La Petite Sirène (book by Philippe Soupault) and Le Maître (book by Eugène Ionesco).[citation needed] Tailleferre also wrote popular songs to texts by Claude Marci, the wife of Henri Jeanson, whose portrait had been painted by Magritte in the 1930s.
Even though Breton by 1946 responded rather negatively to the subject of music with his essay Silence is Golden, later Surrealists, such as Paul Garon, have been interested in—and found parallels to—Surrealism in the improvisation of jazz and the blues. Jazz and blues musicians have occasionally reciprocated this interest. For example, the 1976 World Surrealist Exhibition included performances by "Honeyboy" Edwards.
Surrealism as a political force developed unevenly around the world, in some places more emphasis was on artistic practices, in other places political and in other places still, Surrealist praxis looked to supersize both the arts and politics. During the 1930s the Surrealist idea spread from Europe to North America, South America (founding of the Mandrágora group in Chile in 1938), Central America, the Caribbean, and throughout Asia. As both an artistic idea and as an ideology of political change.
Politically, Surrealism was ultra-leftist, communist, or anarchist. The split from Dada has been characterised as a split between anarchists and communists, with the Surrealists as communist. Breton and his comrades supported Leon Trotsky and his International Left Opposition for a while, though there was an openness to anarchism that manifested more fully after World War II. Some Surrealists, such as Benjamin Péret, Mary Low, and Juan Breá, aligned with forms of left communism. Dalí supported capitalism and the fascist dictatorship of Francisco Franco but cannot be said to represent a trend in Surrealism in this respect; in fact he was considered, by Breton and his associates, to have betrayed and left Surrealism. Péret, Low, and Breá joined the POUM during the Spanish Civil War.
Breton's followers, along with the Communist Party, were working for the "liberation of man." However, Breton's group refused to prioritize the proletarian struggle over radical creation such that their struggles with the Party made the late 1920s a turbulent time for both. Many individuals closely associated with Breton, notably Louis Aragon, left his group to work more closely with the Communists.
Surrealists have often sought to link their efforts with political ideals and activities. In the Declaration of January 27, 1925,[8] for example, members of the Paris-based Bureau of Surrealist Research (including André Breton, Louis Aragon, and, Antonin Artaud, as well as some two dozen others) declared their affinity for revolutionary politics. While this was initially a somewhat vague formulation, by the 1930s many Surrealists had strongly identified themselves with communism. The foremost document of this tendency within Surrealism is the Manifesto for a Free Revolutionary Art,[9] published under the names of Breton and Diego Rivera, but actually co-authored by Breton and Leon Trotsky.[10]
However, in 1933 the Surrealists’ assertion that a 'proletarian literature' within a capitalist society was impossible led to their break with the Association des Ecrivains et Artistes Révolutionnaires, and the expulsion of Breton, Éluard and Crevel from the Communist Party.[3]
In 1925, the Paris Surrealist group and the extreme left of the French Communist Party came together to support Abd-el-Krim, leader of the Rif uprising against French colonialism in Morocco. In an open letter to writer and French ambassador to Japan, Paul Claudel, the Paris group announced:
The anticolonial revolutionary and proletarian politics of "Murderous Humanitarianism" (1932) which was drafted mainly by René Crevel, signed by André Breton, Paul Éluard, Benjamin Péret, Yves Tanguy, and the Martiniquan Surrealists Pierre Yoyotte and J.M. Monnerot perhaps makes it the original document of what is later called 'black Surrealism',[11] although it is the contact between Aimé Césaire and Breton in the 1940s in Martinique that really lead to the communication of what is known as 'black Surrealism'.
Anticolonial revolutionary writers in the Négritude movement of Martinique, a French colony at the time, took up Surrealism as a revolutionary method - a critique of European culture and a radical subjective. This linked with other Surrealists and was very important for the subsequent development of Surrealism as a revolutionary praxis. The journal Tropiques, featuring the work of Cesaire along with René Ménil, Lucie Thésée, Aristide Maugée and others, was first published in 1940.[12]
It is interesting to note that when in 1938 André Breton traveled with his wife the painter Jacqueline Lamba to Mexico to meet Trotsky; staying as the guest of Diego Rivera's former wife Guadalupe Marin; he met Frida Kahlo and saw her paintings for the first time. Breton declared Kahlo to be an "innate" Surrealist painter.[13]
In 1929 the satellite group around the journal Le Grand Jeu, including Roger Gilbert-Lecomte, Maurice Henry and the Czech painter Josef Sima, was ostracized. Also in February, Breton asked Surrealists to assess their "degree of moral competence", and theoretical refinements included in the second manifeste du surréalisme excluded anyone reluctant to commit to collective action, a list which included Leiris, Georges Limbour, Max Morise, Baron, Queneau, Prévert, Desnos, Masson and Boiffard. Excluded members launched a counterattack, sharply criticizing Breton in the pamphlet Un Cadavre, which featured a picture of Breton wearing a crown of thorns. The pamphlet drew upon an earlier act of subversion by likening Breton to Anatole France, whose unquestioned value Breton had challenged in 1924.
In hindsight, the disunion of 1929-30 and the effects of Un Cadavre had very little negative impact upon Surrealism as Breton saw it, since core figures such as Aragon, Crevel, Dalí and Buñuel remained true the idea of group action, at least for the time being. The success (or at least the controversy) of Dalí and Buñuel's film L'Age d'Or in December 1930 had a regenerative effect, drawing a number of new recruits, and encouraging countless new artistic works the following year and throughout the 1930s.
Disgruntled surrealists moved to the periodical Documents, edited by Georges Bataille, whose anti-idealist materialism formed a hybrid Surrealism intending to expose the base instincts of humans.[3][14] To the dismay of many, Documents fizzled out in 1931, just as Surrealism seemed to be gathering more steam.
There were a number of reconciliations after this period of disunion, such as between Breton and Bataille, while Aragon left the group after committing himself to the communist party in 1932. More members were ousted over the years for a variety of infractions, both political and personal, while others left of to pursue creativity of their own style.
By the end of World War II the surrealist group led by André Breton decided to explicitly embrace anarchism. In 1952 Breton wrote "It was in the black mirror of anarchism that surrealism first recognised itself."[15] "Breton was consistent in his support for the Federation Anarchiste and he continued to offer his solidarity after the Platformists around Fontenis transformed the FA into the Federation Communiste Libertaire. He was one of the few intellectuals who continued to offer his support to the FCL during the Algerian war when the FCL suffered severe repression and was forced underground. He sheltered Fontenis whilst he was in hiding. He refused to take sides on the splits in the French anarchist movement and both he and Peret expressed solidarity as well with the new FA set up by the synthesist anarchists and worked in the Antifascist Committees of the 60s alongside the FA."[15]
Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A Surrealist group developed in Britain and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions.
Dalí and Magritte created the most widely recognized images of the movement. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.
Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, in order to evoke empathy from the viewer.
1931 was a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: Magritte's Voice of Space (La Voix des airs)[16] is an example of this process, where three large spheres representing bells hang above a landscape. Another Surrealist landscape from this same year is Yves Tanguy's Promontory Palace (Palais promontoire), with its molten forms and liquid shapes. Liquid shapes became the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his The Persistence of Memory, which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting.
The characteristics of this style - a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological - came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modern period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one's individuality".
From 1936 through 1938 Wolfgang Paalen, Gordon Onslow Ford and Roberto Matta joined the group. Paalen contributed Fumage and Onslow Ford Coulage as new pictorial automatic techniques.
Long after personal, political and professional tensions fragmented the Surrealist group, Magritte and Dalí continued to define a visual program in the arts. This program reached beyond painting, to encompass photography as well, as can be seen from a Man Ray self portrait, whose use of assemblage influenced Robert Rauschenberg's collage boxes.
During the 1930s Peggy Guggenheim, an important American art collector, married Max Ernst and began promoting work by other Surrealists such as Tanguy and the British artist John Tunnard.
Major exhibitions in the 1930s
World War II created havoc not only for the general population of Europe but especially for the European artists and writers that opposed Fascism, and Nazism. Many important artists fled to North America, and relative safety in the United States. The art community in New York City in particular was already grappling with Surrealist ideas and several artists like Arshile Gorky, Jackson Pollock, Robert Motherwell, and Roberto Matta, converged closely with the surrealist artists themselves, albeit with some suspicion and reservations. Ideas concerning the unconscious and dream imagery were quickly embraced. By the Second World War, the taste of the American avant-garde swung decisively towards Abstract Expressionism with the support of key taste makers, including Peggy Guggenheim, Leo Steinberg and Clement Greenberg. However, it should not be easily forgotten that Abstract Expressionism itself grew directly out of the meeting of American (particularly New York) artists with European Surrealists self-exiled during World War II. In particular, Arshile Gorky and Wolfgang Paalen influenced the development of this American art form, which, as Surrealism did, celebrated the instantaneous human act as the well-spring of creativity. The early work of many Abstract Expressionists reveals a tight bond between the more superficial aspects of both movements, and the emergence (at a later date) of aspects of Dadaistic humor in such artists as Rauschenberg sheds an even starker light upon the connection. Up until the emergence of Pop Art, Surrealism can be seen to have been the single most important influence on the sudden growth in American arts, and even in Pop, some of the humor manifested in Surrealism can be found, often turned to a cultural criticism.
The Second World War overshadowed, for a time, almost all intellectual and artistic production. In 1940 Yves Tanguy married American Surrealist painter Kay Sage. In 1941, Breton went to the United States, where he co-founded the short-lived magazine VVV with Max Ernst, Marcel Duchamp, and the American artist David Hare. However, it was the American poet, Charles Henri Ford, and his magazine View which offered Breton a channel for promoting Surrealism in the United States. The View special issue on Duchamp was crucial for the public understanding of Surrealism in America. It stressed his connections to Surrealist methods, offered interpretations of his work by Breton, as well as Breton's view that Duchamp represented the bridge between early modern movements, such as Futurism and Cubism, to Surrealism. Wolfgang Paalen left the group in 1942 due to political/philosophical differences with Breton, founding his journal Dyn.
Though the war proved disruptive for Surrealism, the works continued. Many Surrealist artists continued to explore their vocabularies, including Magritte. Many members of the Surrealist movement continued to correspond and meet. While Dalí may have been excommunicated by Breton, he neither abandoned his themes from the 1930s, including references to the "persistence of time" in a later painting, nor did he become a depictive pompier. His classic period did not represent so sharp a break with the past as some descriptions of his work might portray, and some, such as Thirion, argued that there were works of his after this period that continued to have some relevance for the movement.
During the 1940s Surrealism's influence was also felt in England and America. Mark Rothko took an interest in biomorphic figures, and in England Henry Moore, Lucian Freud, Francis Bacon and Paul Nash used or experimented with Surrealist techniques. However, Conroy Maddox, one of the first British Surrealists whose work in this genre dated from 1935, remained within the movement, and organized an exhibition of current Surrealist work in 1978 in response to an earlier show which infuriated him because it did not properly represent Surrealism. Maddox's exhibition, titled Surrealism Unlimited, was held in Paris and attracted international attention. He held his last one-man show in 2002, and died three years later. Magritte's work became more realistic in its depiction of actual objects, while maintaining the element of juxtaposition, such as in 1951's Personal Values (Les Valeurs Personneles)[18] and 1954's Empire of Light (L’Empire des lumières).[19] Magritte continued to produce works which have entered artistic vocabulary, such as Castle in the Pyrenees (La Chateau des Pyrenees),[20] which refers back to Voix from 1931, in its suspension over a landscape.
Other figures from the Surrealist movement were expelled. Several of these artists, like Roberto Matta (by his own description) "remained close to Surrealism."[4]
After the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, Endre Rozsda returned to Paris to continue creating his own word that had been transcended the surrealism. The preface to his first exhibition in the Furstenberg Gallery (1957) was written by Breton yet.[21]
Many new artists explicitly took up the Surrealist banner for themselves. Dorothea Tanning and Louise Bourgeois continued to work, for example, with Tanning's Rainy Day Canape from 1970. Duchamp continued to produce sculpture in secret including an installation with the realistic depiction of a woman viewable only through a peephole.
Breton continued to write and espouse the importance of liberating of the human mind, as with the publication The Tower of Light in 1952. Breton's return to France after the War, began a new phase of Surrealist activity in Paris, and his critiques of rationalism and dualism found a new audience. Breton insisted that Surrealism was an ongoing revolt against the reduction of humanity to market relationships, religious gestures and misery and to espouse the importance of liberating the human mind.
Major exhibitions of the 1940s, '50s and '60s
There is no clear consensus about the end, or if there was an end, to the Surrealist movement. Some art historians suggest that World War II effectively disbanded the movement. However, art historian Sarane Alexandrian (1970) states, "the death of André Breton in 1966 marked the end of Surrealism as an organized movement." There have also been attempts to tie the obituary of the movement to the 1989 death of Salvador Dalí[citation needed].
In the 1960s, the artists and writers grouped around the Situationist International were closely associated with Surrealism. While Guy Debord was critical of and distanced himself from Surrealism, others, such as Asger Jorn, were explicitly using Surrealist techniques and methods. The events of May 1968 in France included a number of Surrealist ideas, and among the slogans the students spray-painted on the walls of the Sorbonne were familiar Surrealist ones. Joan Miró would commemorate this in a painting titled May 1968. There were also groups who associated with both currents and were more attached to Surrealism, such as the Revolutionary Surrealist Group.
In Europe and all over the world since the 1960s, artists have combined Surrealism with what is believed to be a classical 16th century technique called mischtechnik, a kind of mix of egg tempera and oil paint rediscovered by Ernst Fuchs, a contemporary of Dalí, and now practiced and taught by many followers, including Robert Venosa and Chris Mars. The former curator of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Michael Bell, has called this style "veristic Surrealism", which depicts with meticulous clarity and great detail a world analogous to the dream world. Other tempera artists, such as Robert Vickrey, regularly depict Surreal imagery.
During the 1980s, behind the Iron Curtain, Surrealism again entered into politics with an underground artistic opposition movement known as the Orange Alternative. The Orange Alternative was created in 1981 by Waldemar Fydrych (alias 'Major'), a graduate of history and art history at the University of Wrocław. They used Surrealist symbolism and terminology in their large scale happenings organized in the major Polish cities during the Jaruzelski regime, and painted Surrealist graffiti on spots covering up anti-regime slogans. Major himself was the author of a "Manifesto of Socialist Surrealism". In this manifesto, he stated that the socialist (communist) system had become so Surrealistic that it could be seen as an expression of art itself.
Surrealistic art also remains popular with museum patrons. The Guggenheim Museum in New York City held an exhibit, Two Private Eyes, in 1999, and in 2001 Tate Modern held an exhibition of Surrealist art that attracted over 170,000 visitors. In 2002 the Met in New York City held a show, Desire Unbound, and the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris a show called La Révolution surréaliste.
While Surrealism is typically associated with the arts, it has been said to transcend them; Surrealism has had an impact in many other fields. In this sense, Surrealism does not specifically refer only to self-identified "Surrealists", or those sanctioned by Breton, rather, it refers to a range of creative acts of revolt and efforts to liberate imagination.
In addition to Surrealist ideas that are grounded in the ideas of Hegel, Marx and Freud, Surrealism is seen by its advocates as being inherently dynamic and as dialectical in its thought. Surrealists have also drawn on sources as seemingly diverse as Clark Ashton Smith, Montague Summers, Horace Walpole, Fantomas, The Residents, Bugs Bunny, comic strips, the obscure poet Samuel Greenberg and the hobo writer and humourist T-Bone Slim. One might say that Surrealist strands may be found in movements such as Free Jazz (Don Cherry, Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor etc.) and even in the daily lives of people in confrontation with limiting social conditions. Thought of as the effort of humanity to liberate imagination as an act of insurrection against society, Surrealism finds precedents in the alchemists, possibly Dante, Hieronymus Bosch, Marquis de Sade, Charles Fourier, Comte de Lautreamont and Arthur Rimbaud.
Surrealists believe that non-Western cultures also provide a continued source of inspiration for Surrealist activity because some may strike up a better balance between instrumental reason and imagination in flight than Western culture. Surrealism has had an identifiable impact on radical and revolutionary politics, both directly — as in some Surrealists joining or allying themselves with radical political groups, movements and parties — and indirectly — through the way in which Surrealists' emphasize the intimate link between freeing imagination and the mind, and liberation from repressive and archaic social structures. This was especially visible in the New Left of the 1960s and 1970s and the French revolt of May 1968, whose slogan "All power to the imagination" rose directly from French Surrealist thought and practice.
Many significant literary movements in the later half of the 20th century were directly or indirectly influenced by Surrealism. This period is known as the Postmodern era; though there's no widely agreed upon central definition of Postmodernism, many themes and techniques commonly identified as Postmodern are nearly identical to Surrealism. Perhaps the writers within the Postmodern era who have the most in common with Surrealism are the playwrights of Theatre of the Absurd. Though not an organized movement, these playwrights were grouped together based on some similarities of theme and technique; these similarities can perhaps be traced to influence from the Surrealists. Eugène Ionesco in particular was fond of Surrealism, claiming at one point that Breton was one of the most important thinkers in history. Samuel Beckett was also fond of Surrealists, even translating much of the poetry into English; he may have had closer ties had the Surrealists not been critical of Beckett's mentor and friend James Joyce. Many writers from and associated with the Beat Generation were influenced greatly by Surrealists. Philip Lamantia and Ted Joans are often categorized as both Beat and Surrealist writers. Many other Beat writers claimed Surrealism as a significant influence. A few examples include Bob Kaufman, Gregory Corso, and Allen Ginsberg. In popular culture much of the stream of consciousness song writing of the young Bob Dylan, c. 1960s and including some of Dylan's more recent writing as well, (c. mid - 1980s-2006) clearly have Surrealist connections and undertones. In popular culture much of the song writing of The Beatles reached a more surreal tone during the mid-1960s as psychedelics had entered the public consciousness. Magic Realism, a popular technique among novelists of the latter half of the 20th century especially among Latin American writers, has some obvious similarities to Surrealism with its juxtaposition of the normal and the dream-like. The prominence of Magic Realism in Latin American literature is often credited in some part to the direct influence of Surrealism on Latin American artists (Frida Kahlo, for example).
Surrealist theater depicts the subconscious experience, moody tone and disjointed structure, sometimes imposing a unifying idea.[23]
Antonin Artaud, one of the original Surrealists, rejected Western theatre as a perversion of the original intent of theatre, which he felt should be a religious and mystical experience. He thought that rational discourse comprised "falsehood and illusion", which embodied the worst of discourse. Endeavouring to create a new theatrical form that would be immediate and direct, linking the unconscious minds of performers and spectators, a sort of ritual event,[24] Artaud created the Theatre of Cruelty where emotions, feelings, and the metaphysical were expressed not through text or dialogue but physically, creating a mythological, archetypal, allegorical vision, closely related to the world of dreams.[25]
These sentiments also led to the Theatre of the Absurd whose inspiration came, in part, from silent film and comedy, as well as the tradition of verbal nonsense in early sound film (Laurel and Hardy, W. C. Fields, the Marx Brothers).
Virginia Woolf's only play Freshwater
conjurs surreal images by suggestion using a collective identity.
[Wiki Surrealismo Español]
El Surrealismo (en francés: surréalisme; sur [sobre, por encima] más réalisme [realismo]) o superrealismo es un movimiento artístico y literario surgido en Francia a partir del dadaísmo, en la década de los años 1920, en torno a la personalidad del poeta André Breton. Buscaba descubrir una verdad, con escrituras automáticas, sin correcciones racionales, utilizando imágenes para expresar sus emociones, pero que nunca seguían un razonamiento lógico.
[editar] Origen del términoLos términos surrealismo y surrealista proceden de Apollinaire, quien los acuñó en 1917. En el programa de mano que escribió para el musical Parade (mayo de 1917) afirma que sus autores han conseguido.
La palabra surrealista aparece en el subtítulo de Las tetas de Tiresias (drama surrealista), en junio de 1917, para referirse a la reproducción creativa de un objeto, que lo transforma y enriquece. Como escribe Apollinaire en el prefacio al drama,
La meta surrealista y sus medios se remontan siglos antes al nacimiento del movimiento. Basta citar a Hieronymus Bosch "el Bosco", considerado el primer artista surrealista, que en los siglos XV y XVI creó obras como "El jardín de las delicias" o "El carro del heno". Pero fue en el siglo XX cuando surgiría el nacimiento de una vanguardia filosófica y artística que retomaría estos elementos y los desarrollaría como nunca antes se había hecho.
La primera fecha histórica del movimiento es 1916, año en que André Breton, precursor, líder y gran pensador del movimiento, descubre las teorías de Sigmund Freud y Alfred Jarry, además de conocer a Jacques Vache y a Guillaume Apollinaire. Durante los siguientes años se da un confuso encuentro con el dadaísmo, movimiento artístico precedido por Tristan Tzara, en el cual se decantan las ideas de ambos movimientos. Estos, uno inclinado hacia la destrucción nihilista (dadá) y el otro a la construcción romántica (surrealismo) se sirvieron como catalizadores entre ellos durante su desarrollo.
En el año 1924 Breton escribe el primer Manifiesto Surrealista y en este incluye lo siguiente:
Indica muy mala fe discutirnos el derecho a emplear la palabra surrealismo, en el sentido particular que nosotros le damos, ya que nadie puede dudar de que esta palabra no tuvo fortuna, antes de que nosotros nos sirviéramos de ella. Voy a definirla de una vez para siempre:Surrealismo: "sustantivo, masculino.
Automatismo psíquico puro, por
cuyo medio se intenta expresar, verbalmente, por escrito o de cualquier
otro modo, el funcionamiento real del pensamiento. Es un dictado del
pensamiento, sin la intervención reguladora de la razón, ajeno a toda
preocupación estética o moral."
Filosofía: "El surrealismo se basa en la
creencia de una realidad
superior de ciertas formas de asociación desdeñadas hasta la aparición
del mismo, y en el libre ejercicio del pensamiento. Tiende a destruir
definitivamente todos los restantes mecanismos psíquicos, y a
sustituirlos por la resolución de los principales problemas de la vida.
Tal fue la definición del término dada por los propios Breton y Soupault en el primer Manifiesto Surrealista fechado en 1924. Surgió por tanto como un movimiento poético, en el que pintura y escultura se conciben como consecuencias plásticas de la poesía.
En El surrealismo y la pintura, de 1928, Breton expone la psicología surrealista: el inconsciente es la región del intelecto donde el ser humano no objetiva la realidad sino que forma un todo con ella. El arte, en esa esfera, no es representación sino comunicación vital directa del individuo con el todo. Esa conexión se expresa de forma privilegiada en las casualidades significativas (azar objetivo), en las que el deseo del individuo y el devenir ajeno a él convergen imprevisiblemente, y en el sueño, donde los elementos más dispares se revelan unidos por relaciones secretas. El surrealismo propone trasladar esas imágenes al mundo del arte por medio de una asociación mental libre, sin la intromisión censora de la conciencia. De ahí que elija como método el automatismo, recogiendo en buena medida el testigo de las prácticas mediúmnicas espiritistas, aunque cambiando radicalmente su interpretación: lo que habla a través del médium no son los espíritus, sino el inconsciente.
Durante unas sesiones febriles de automatismo, Breton y Soupault escriben Los Campos Magnéticos, primera muestra de las posibilidades de la escritura automática, que publican en 1921. Más adelante Breton publica Pez soluble. Dice así el final del séptimo cuento:
A partir de 1925, a raíz del estallido de la guerra de Marruecos, el surrealismo se politiza; se producen entonces los primeros contactos con los comunistas, que culminarían ese mismo año con la adhesión al Partido Comunista por parte de Breton.
Entre 1925 y 1930 aparece un nuevo periódico titulado El Surrealismo al servicio de la Revolución en cuyo primer número Louis Aragón, Buñuel, Dalí, Paul Éluard, Max Ernst, Yves Tanguy y Tristan Tzara, entre otros, se declaran partidarios de Breton. Por su parte Jean Arp y Miró, aunque no compartían la decisión política tomada por Breton, continuaban participando con interés en las exposiciones surrealistas. Poco después se incorporaron Magritte (1930), Masson (1931), Giacometti y Brauner en 1933 y también Matta (que conoce a Breton en 1937 por mediación de Dalí) y Lam; el movimiento se hizo internacional apareciendo grupos surrealistas en los Estados Unidos, Dinamarca, Londres, Checoslovaquia y Japón. Desde este momento, se abrirá una disputa, a menudo agria, entre aquellos surrealistas que conciben el surrealismo como un movimiento puramente artístico, rechazando la supeditación al comunismo, y los que acompañan a Breton en su giro a la izquierda.
En 1929 Breton publica el Segundo Manifiesto Surrealista, en el que condena entre otros intelectuales a los artistas Masson y Francis Picabia. En 1936 expulsa a Dalí por sus tendencias fascistas y a Paul Éluard. En 1938 Breton firma en México junto con León Trotski y Diego Rivera el Manifiesto por un Arte Revolucionario Independiente.
El surrealismo tomó del dadaísmo algunas técnicas de fotografía y cinematografía así como la fabricación de objetos. Extendieron el principio del collage (el "objeto encontrado") al ensamblaje de objetos incongruentes, como en los poemas visibles de Max Ernst. Este último inventó el frottage (dibujos compuestos por el roce de superficies rugosas contra el papel o el lienzo) y lo aplicó en grandes obras como Historia Natural, pintada en París en 1926.
Otra de las nuevas actividades creadas por el surrealismo fue la llamada cadáver exquisito, en la cual varios artistas dibujaban las distintas partes de una figura o de un texto sin ver lo que el anterior había hecho pasándose el papel doblado. Las criaturas resultantes pudieron servir de inspiración a Miró.
En el terreno literario, el surrealismo supuso una gran revolución en el lenguaje y la aportación de nuevas técnicas de composición. Como no asumía tradición cultural alguna, ni desde el punto de vista temático ni formal, prescindió de la métrica y adoptó el tipo de expresión poética denominado como versículo: un verso de extensión indefinida sin rima que se sostiene únicamente por la cohesión interna de su ritmo. Igualmente, como no se asumía la temática consagrada, se fue a buscar en las fuentes de la represión psicológica (sueños, sexualidad) y social, con lo que la lírica se rehumanizó después de que los ismos intelectualizados de las Vanguardias la deshumanizaran, a excepción del Expresionismo. Para ello utilizaron los recursos de la transcripción de sueños, la escritura automática y engendraron procedimientos metafóricos nuevos como la imagen visionaria. El lenguaje se renovó también desde el punto de vista del léxico dando cabida a campos semánticos nuevos y la retórica se enriqueció con nuevos procedimientos expresivos.
Masson adoptó enseguida las técnicas del automatismo, hacia 1923-1924, poco después de conocer a Breton. Hacia 1929 las abandonó para volver a un estilo cubista. Por su parte Dalí utilizaba más la fijación de imágenes tomadas de los sueños, según Breton, «...abusando de ellas y poniendo en peligro la credibilidad del surrealismo...»; inventó lo que él mismo llamó método paranoico-crítico, una mezcla entre la técnica de observación de Leonardo da Vinci por medio de la cual observando una pared se podía ver como surgían formas y técnicas de frottage; fruto de esta técnica son las obras en las que se ven dos imágenes en una sola configuración. Óscar Domínguez inventó la decalcomanía (aplicar gouache negro sobre un papel el cual se coloca encima de otra hoja sobre la que se ejerce una ligera presión, luego se despegan antes de que se sequen). Además de las técnicas ya mencionadas de la decalcomanía y el frottage, los surrealistas desarrollaron otros procedimientos que incluyen igualmente el azar: el raspado, el fumage y la distribución de arena sobre el lienzo encolado.[1]
Miró fue para Breton el más surrealista de todos, por su automatismo psíquico puro. Su surrealismo se desenvuelve entre las primeras obras donde explora sus sueños y fantasías infantiles (El Campo labrado), las obras donde el automatismo es predominante (Nacimiento del mundo) y las obras en que desarrolla su lenguaje de signos y formas biomorfas (Personaje lanzando una piedra). Arp combina las técnicas de automatismo y las oníricas en la misma obra desarrollando una iconografía de formas orgánicas que se ha dado en llamar escultura biomórfica, en la que se trata de representar lo orgánico como principio formativo de la realidad.
René Magritte dotó al surrealismo de una carga conceptual basada en el juego de imágenes ambiguas y su significado denotado a través de palabras poniendo en cuestión la relación entre un objeto pintado y el real. Paul Delvaux carga a sus obras de un espeso erotismo basado en su carácter de extrañamiento en los espacios de Giorgio de Chirico.
El surrealismo penetró la actividad de muchos artistas europeos y americanos en distintas épocas. Pablo Picasso se alió con el movimiento surrealista en 1925; Breton declaraba este acercamiento de Picasso calificándolo de «...surrealista dentro del cubismo...». Se consideran surrealistas las obras del período Dinard (1928-1930), en que Picasso combina lo monstruoso y lo sublime en la composición de figuras medio máquinas medio monstruos de aspecto gigantesco y a veces terrorífico. Esta monumentalidad surrealista de Picasso puede ponerse en paralelo con la de Henry Moore y en la poesia y el teatro con la de Fernando Arrabal.
Otros movimientos pictóricos nacieron del surrealismo, o lo prefiguran, como por ejemplo el Art brut.
En 1938 tuvo lugar en París la Exposición Internacional del Surrealismo que marcó el apogeo de este movimiento antes de la guerra. Participaron entre otros, Marcel Duchamp, Arp, Dalí, Ernst, Masson, Man Ray, Óscar Domínguez y Meret Oppenheim. La exposición ofreció al público sobre todo una excelente muestra de lo que el surrealismo había producido en la fabricación de objetos.
Con el estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los surrealistas se dispersan, algunos de ellos (Breton, Ernst, Masson) abandonan París y se trasladan a los Estados Unidos, donde siembran el germen para los futuros movimientos americanos de posguerra (expresionismo abstracto y Arte Pop).
En España el surrealismo aparece en torno a los años veinte no en su vertiente puramente vanguardista sino mezclado con acentos simbolistas y de la pintura popular. Además de Joan Miró y Salvador Dalí, el surrealismo español lo componen Maruja Mallo, Gregorio Prieto, José Moreno Villa, Benjamín Palencia y José Caballero, además de los neocubistas que se pasan al surrealismo (Alberto Sánchez y Ángel Ferrant), y algunas creaciones pictóricas juveniles de Modesto Ciruelos y su "Serie Circense" presentada en la Academia Breve de Crítica de Arte de Eugenio D'Ors en Madrid el año 1947. Hubo un importante núcleo surrealista en las Islas Canarias, agrupado en torno a la Gaceta de Arte de Eduardo Westerdahl, con pintores como Óscar Domínguez o el propio Westerdahl y un grupo de poetas que invitaron a André Bretón a venir en 1935; allí compuso este el poema Le chateau etoilé y otras obras. En España Fernando Arrabal y en Latinoamérica se consideran surrealistas, además de los ya citados Matta y Lam, a Remedios Varo y Leonora Carrington.
El surrealismo fue seguido con interés por los intelectuales españoles de los años 30. Existía el precedente de Ramón Gómez de la Serna, quien utilizaba algunas fórmulas vinculables al surrealismo, como la greguería. El primero en adoptar sus métodos fue José María Hinojosa, autor de La flor de Californía (1928), libro pionero de prosas narrativas y oníricas.
Varios poetas de la generación del 27 se interesaron por las posibilidades expresivas del surrealismo. Su huella es evidente en libros como en la sección tercera de Sobre los ángeles y en Sermones y moradas de Rafael Alberti; en Poeta en Nueva York de Federico García Lorca y Un río, un amor y Los placeres prohibidos de Luis Cernuda. Vicente Aleixandre se definió a sí mismo como "un poeta superrealista", aunque matizando que su poesía no era en modo alguno producto directo de la escritura automática. Miguel Hernández sufrió una efímera etapa surrealista y durante la posguerra la imprenta surrealista se percibe en los poetas del Postismo y en Juan Eduardo Cirlot, y en la actualidad existe un cierto postsurrealismo en la obra de algunos poetas como Blanca Andreu.
En las islas Canarias la afición por el surrealismo llevó a la formación en los años 30 de la Facción Surrealista de Tenerife, un grupo de entusiastas, al modo del creado en Francia alrededor de André Breton. Sus componentes (Agustín Espinosa, Domingo López Torres, Pedro García Cabrera, Óscar Domínguez, Eduardo Westerdahl y Domingo Pérez Minik) expusieron sus creaciones y puntos de vista en los treinta y ocho números de la revista Gaceta de Arte.
Aunque no se le pueda considerar un surrealista estricto, el poeta y pensador Juan Larrea vivió de primera mano la eclosión del movimiento en París y reflexionó más tarde sobre su valor y trascendencia en obras como Surrealismo entre viejo y nuevo mundo (1944). En la actualidad existe una corriente de neosurrealismo en la poesía de Blanca Andreu. El español Fernando Arrabal tuvo una asistencia diaria al "café surrealista" La Promenade de Vénus de 1960 a 1963. André Breton publicó su teatro, su "Piedra de la locura" y algunos de sus cuadros.
En Hispanoamérica el surrealismo contó con la adhesión entusiasta de poetas como el chileno Braulio Arenas y los peruanos César Moro, Xavier Abril, y Emilio Adolfo Westphalen, además de influir decisivamente en la obra de figuras mayores como Pablo Neruda, Gonzalo Rojas y César Vallejo. En Argentina, pese al desdén de Jorge Luis Borges, el surrealismo sedujo aún al joven Julio Cortázar y produjo un fruto tardío en la obra de Alejandra Pizarnik. Se ha señalado también su influencia en otros autores de producción más reciente, como el músico Alejandro de Michele. El poeta y pensador mexicano Octavio Paz ocupa un lugar particular en la historia del movimiento: amigo personal de Breton, dedicó al surrealismo varios ensayos esclarecedores.
El surrealismo tuvo como antecedente la patafísica de Alfred Jarry, y el movimiento dadaísta fundado en Zurich en 1916 por T. Tzara, H. Ball y H. Arp. Animados por idéntico espíritu de provocación, André Breton, Louis Aragon y Ph. Soupault fundaron en París la revista Littérature (1919), mientras en EE.UU manifestaban actitudes similares Man Ray, Marcel Duchamp y Francis Picabia, y en Alemania, Max Ernst y Hugo Ball.
A esta fase sucedió una actitud más metódica de investigación del inconsciente, emprendida por Breton, junto a Aragon, Paul Éluard, Soupault, Robert Desnos, Max Ernst, etc. La primera obra de esta tendencia, que cabe calificar de primera obra literaria surrealista, fue Los campos magnéticos (1921), escrita conjuntamente por Breton y Soupault. Tras la ruptura con Tzara, se adhirieron al movimiento Antonin Artaud, André Masson y Pierre Naville.
Breton redactó la primera definición del movimiento en su Manifiesto del surrealismo (1924), texto que dio cohesión a los postulados y propósitos del movimiento. Entre los autores que citaba como precursores del movimiento figuran Freud, Lautréamont, Edward Young, Matthew Lewis, Gérard de Nerval, Jonathan Swift, Sade, Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Poe, Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Mallarmé y Jarry. En el mismo año se fundó el Bureau de recherches surréalistes y la revista La Révolution Surréaliste, que sustituyó a Littérature, de cuya dirección se hizo cargo el propio Breton en 1925 y que se convirtió en el órgano de expresión común del grupo.
La producción surrealista se caracterizó por una vocación libertaria sin límites y la exaltación de los procesos oníricos, del humor corrosivo y de la pasión erótica, concebidos como armas de lucha contra la tradición cultural burguesa. Las ideas del grupo se expresaron a través de técnicas literarias, como la «escritura automática», las provocaciones pictóricas y las ruidosas tomas de posición públicas. El acercamiento operado a fines de los años veinte con los comunistas produjo las primeras querellas y cismas en el movimiento.
En 1930 Breton publicó su Segundo manifiesto del surrealismo, en el que excomulgaba a Joseph Delteil, Antonin Artaud, Philippe Soupault, Robert Desnos, Georges Limbour, André Masson, Roger Vitrac, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes y Francis Picabia. El mismo año apareció el nuevo órgano del movimiento, la revista Le Surréalisme au Service de la Révolution, que suplantó al anterior, La Révolution Surréaliste, y paralelamente, Aragon (tras su viaje a la URSS), Éluard, Péret y Breton ingresaron en el Partido Comunista. A fines de 1933, Breton, Éluard y Crevel fueron expulsados del partido. En los años treinta se sumaron al movimiento Salvador Dalí, Luis Buñuel, Yves Tanguy, René Char y Georges Sadoul.
Tras los años previos a la II Guerra Mundial, marcados por la militancia activa de Breton, y los años de exilio neoyorquino de la mayoría de sus miembros, durante la ocupación alemana de Francia, el movimiento siguió manteniendo cierta cohesión y vitalidad, pero a partir de 1946, cuando Breton regresó a París, el surrealismo era ya parte de la historia.
Al principio el surrealismo es un movimiento fundamentalmente literario, y hasta un poco más tarde no producirá grandes resultados en las artes plásticas. Surge un concepto fundamental, el automatismo, basado en una suerte de dictado mágico, procedente del inconsciente, gracias al cual surgían poemas, ensayos, etc., y que más tarde sería recogido por pintores y escultores.
La primera exposición surrealista se celebró en la Galerie Pierre de París en 1925, y en ella, además de Jean Arp, Giorgio de Chirico y Max Ernst, participaron artistas como André Masson, Picasso, Man Ray, Pierre Roy, P. Klee y Joan Miró, que posteriormente se separarían del movimiento o se mantendrían unidos a él adoptando únicamente algunos de sus principios. A ellos se adhirieron Yves Tanguy, René Magritte, Salvador Dalí y Alberto Giacometti.[2]
La rebelión del surrealismo contra la tradición cultural burguesa y el orden moral establecido tuvo su cariz político, y un sector del surrealismo, que no consideraba suficientes los tumultos de sus manifestaciones culturales, se afilió al Partido Comunista Francés. Sin embargo, nacieron violentas discrepancias en el seno del grupo a propósito del debate sobre la relación entre arte y política; se sucedieron manifiestos contradictorios y el movimiento tendió a disgregarse. Es significativo, a este respecto, que la revista «La révolution surréaliste» pase a llamarse, desde 1930, «Le surréalisme au service de la révolution». En los años 1930, el movimiento se extendió más allá de las fronteras francesas. Se celebró en 1938 en París la Exposición Surrealista Internacional.
La segunda guerra mundial paralizó toda actividad en Europa. Ello motivó que Breton, como muchos otros artistas, marchase a los EE. UU.. Allí surgió una asociación de pintores surrealistas alemanes y franceses que se reunió en torno a la revista VVV. Estos surrealistas emigrados a EE.UU. influyeron en el arte estadounidense, en particular en el desarrollo del expresionismo abstracto en los años 1940. Cuando Breton regresó a Europa en 1946 el movimiento estaba ya definitivamente deteriorado.
Entre los artistas plásticos se manifiesta una dualidad en la interpretación del surrealismo: los surrealistas abstractos, que se decantan por la aplicación del automatismo puro, como André Masson o Joan Miró, e inventan universos figurativos propios; y los surrealistas figurativos, interesados por la vía onírica, entre ellos René Magritte, Paul Delvaux, o Salvador Dalí, que se sirven de un realismo minucioso y de medios técnicos tradicionales, pero que se apartan de la pintura tradicional por la inusitada asociación de objetos y las monstruosas deformaciones, así como por la atmósfera onírica y delirante que se desprende de sus obras. Max Ernst es uno de los pocos surrealistas que se mueve entre las dos vías. La obra de Ernst ha influido particularmente en un epígono tardío del surrealismo en Alemania que es Stefan von Reiswitz.
En la vertiente cinematográfica, el surrealismo dio lugar a varios intentos enmarcados en el cine de las vanguardias históricas, como La coquille et le clergyman (1926) 'La concha y el clérigo', de Germaine Dulac o L'étoile de mer (1928) 'La estrella de mar', de Man Ray y Robert Desnos, un cortometraje dadaísta.
Luis Buñuel, en colaboración con Dalí, realizó las obras más revolucionarias: Un perro andaluz (Un chien andalou, 1928) y La edad de oro (L'âge d'or, 1930).
Alfred Hitchcock y Salvador Dalí colaboraron cuando el primero encargó al artista catalán parte de la escenografía de "Recuerda" (Spellbound).
Cineastas contemporáneos, como David Lynch, Jean-Pierre Jeunet, Julio Médem, o Carlos Atanes, entre otros, muestran la influencia del surrealismo.
Le surréalisme est un mouvement artistique qu'André Breton définit dans le premier Manifeste du Surréalisme comme « automatisme psychique pur, par lequel on se propose d'exprimer, soit verbalement, soit par écrit, soit de toute autre manière, le fonctionnement réel de la pensée. Dictée de la pensée, en l'absence de tout contrôle exercé par la raison, en dehors de toute préoccupation esthétique ou morale ».
« Le surréalisme repose sur la croyance à la réalité supérieure de certaines formes d'associations négligées jusqu'à lui, à la toute-puissance du rêve, au jeu désintéressé de la pensée. Il tend à ruiner définitivement tous les autres mécanismes psychiques et à se substituer à eux dans la résolution des principaux problèmes de la vie [...] »[1].
Dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, le « supernaturalisme » de Gérard de Nerval, le « surnaturalisme » d'Emmanuel Swedenborg et de Charles Baudelaire et aussi le symbolisme de Stéphane Mallarmé et, enfin surtout, le romantisme allemand de Jean Paul (dont les rêves annoncent l'écriture automatique) et d'Hoffmann peuvent être considérés comme des mouvements précurseurs du surréalisme. Plus sûrement, les œuvres littéraires d'Alfred Jarry, d'Arthur Rimbaud et de Lautréamont, et picturales de Gustave Moreau et Odilon Redon sont les sources séminales dans lesquelles puiseront les premiers surréalistes (Louis Aragon, Breton, Paul Éluard, Philippe Soupault, Pierre Reverdy). Quant aux premières œuvres plastiques, elles poursuivent les inventions du cubisme. Cette aventure (« une attitude inexorable de sédition et de défi ») passe par l'appropriation de la pensée du poète Arthur Rimbaud (« changer la vie »), de celle du philosophe Karl Marx (« transformer le monde ») et des recherches de Sigmund Freud[2] : Breton s'est passionné pour les idées de Freud [3]qu'il a découvertes dans les ouvrages des français Emmanuel Régis et Angelo Hesnard en 1917.[4] Il en a retiré la conviction du lien profond unissant le monde réel et le monde sensible des rêves, et d'une forme de continuité entre l'état de veille et l'état de sommeil (voir en particulier l'écriture automatique). Dans l'esprit de Breton, l'analogie entre le rêveur et le poète, présente chez Baudelaire, est dépassée. Il considère le surréalisme comme une recherche de l'union du réel et l'imaginaire : « Je crois à la résolution future de ces deux états, en apparence si contradictoires, que sont le rêve et la réalité, en une sorte de réalité absolue. »[5]
Origine du mot [modifier]C'est dans une lettre de Guillaume Apollinaire à Paul Dermée, de mars 1917, qu'apparaît pour la première fois le substantif « surréalisme » : « Tout bien examiné, je crois en effet qu'il vaut mieux adopter surréalisme que surnaturalisme que j'avais d'abord employé. Surréalisme n'existe pas encore dans les dictionnaires, et il sera plus commode à manier que surnaturalisme déjà employé par MM. les Philosophes. »
En mai 1917, dans une chronique consacrée au ballet « Parade », Apollinaire, admiratif des décors créés par Picasso, évoque « [...] une sorte de sur-réalisme où [il] voit le point de départ d'une série de manifestations de cet esprit nouveau qui [...] se promet de modifier de fond en comble les arts et les moeurs [...] Cette tâche surréaliste que Picasso a accomplie en peinture, [...] je m'efforce [de l']accomplir dans les lettres et dans les âmes [...] »[6]
Pour Jean-Paul Clébert, c'est le poète Pierre Albert-Birot qui suggéra à Apollinaire de sous-titrer sa pièce « Les Mamelles de Tirésias », "drame surréaliste" plutôt que "surnaturaliste".[7]
Ce mot apparaît dès le 16 juin 1917 dans une lettre de Jacques Vaché à Théodore Fraenkel : « … et j'espère être à Paris […] pour la représentation surréaliste de Guillaume Apollinaire. »[8]
Le surréalisme explore de nouvelles techniques de création qui laissent le champ libre à l'inconscient et force la désinhibition des conditionnements : écriture automatique, récits dictés pendant le sommeil forcé, cadavres exquis, sollicitation du hasard objectif.
Le surréalisme connaît une fortune particulière dans la littérature francophone belge. Paul Nougé, dont la poésie présente un aspect ludique très marqué, fonde en 1924 un centre surréaliste à Bruxelles avec les poètes Camille Goemans, Marcel Lecomte… Un autre groupe important, « Rupture », se crée en 1932, à La Louvière, autour de la personnalité d'Achille Chavée.
Le surréalisme belge prend ses distances à l'égard de l'écriture automatique et de l'engagement politique du groupe parisien. L'écrivain et collagiste E. L. T. Mesens fut l'ami de René Magritte, les poètes Paul Colinet, Louis Scutenaire et André Souris et plus tard Marcel Mariën appartiennent également au courant.
Le surréalisme exercera une action stimulante sur le développement de la poésie espagnole, mais à la fin des années 1920 seulement et en dépit de la méfiance suscitée par l'irrationalisme inhérent à la notion d'écriture automatique. Ramón Gómez de la Serna définit ses rapprochements insolites, « greguerias », comme « humour + métaphore ». Le courant « ultraïste » déterminera un changement de ton chez les poètes de la « Génération de 27 », Federico García Lorca, Rafael Alberti, Vicente Aleixandre et Luis Cernuda.
Les principes surréalistes se retrouvent en Scandinavie et en URSS. Le « poétisme » tchèque peut être considéré comme une première phase du surréalisme. Il s'affirme dès 1924 avec un manifeste publié par Karel Teige, qui conçoit la poésie comme une création intégrale, donnant libre cours à l'imagination et au sens ludique. Ses représentants les plus éminents furent Jaroslav Seifert et surtout Vítězslav Nezval, dont Soupault souligna l'audace des images et symboles. Le mouvement surréaliste yougoslave entretient d'étroits contacts avec le courant français grâce à Marko Ristić.
En dépit d'une perte de prestige à partir de 1940, le surréalisme a existé comme groupe jusqu'aux années 1960, en se renouvelant au fur et à mesure des départs et des exclusions.
Le surréalisme fut également revendiqué comme source d'inspiration par l'Alternative orange, un groupe artistique d'opposition polonais, dont le fondateur Major (Commandant) Waldemar Fydrych avait proclamé Le Manifeste du Surréalisme Socialiste. Ce groupe, qui organisait des happenings, peignait des graffiti absurdes en forme de lutins sur les murs des villes et était un des éléments les plus pittoresques de l’opposition polonaise contre le communisme, utilisait largement l’esthétique surréaliste dans sa terminologie et dans la place donnée à l’acte spontané.
Par l'écriture automatique, les surréalistes ont voulu donner une voix aux désirs profonds, refoulés par celle de la société, cette « violente et traîtresse maîtresse d'école », selon le mot de Michel de Montaigne. L'objet surréaliste ainsi obtenu a d'abord pour effet de déconcerter l'esprit, donc de « le mettre en son tort ». Peut se produire alors la résurgence des forces profondes, l'esprit « revit avec exaltation la meilleure part de son enfance ». On saisit de tout son être la liaison qui unit les objets les plus opposés, l'image surréaliste authentiquement est un symbole. Approfondissant la pensée de Baudelaire, André Breton compare, dans Arcane 17, la démarche du surréalisme et celle de l'ésotérisme : elle offre « l'immense intérêt de maintenir à l'état dynamique le système de comparaison, ce champ illimité, dont dispose l'homme, qui lui livre les rapports susceptibles de relier les objets en apparence les plus éloignés et lui découvre partiellement le symbolisme universel. »
Le peintre Max Ernst, de son côté, découvre pour son art une méthode analogue à l'écriture automatique, méthode que déjà Léonard de Vinci avait esquissée. Frappé par un plancher d'auberge dont les lavages avaient accentué les rainures, il pose sur elles au hasard une feuille et frotte à la mine de plomb. « En regardant attentivement les dessins ainsi obtenus, les parties sombres et les autres plus claires, je fus surpris de l'intensification subite de mes facultés visionnaires et de la succession hallucinante d'images contradictoires. »
Au Québec, dans les années 1940, naitra un groupe d'artistes qui se qualifie d'« automatistes ». Ils feront grands bruits dans la société québécoise avec la sortie en 1948 du Refus Global qui s'oppose à toute l'idéologie des autorités au pouvoir, qu'elles soient politiques ou religieuses. Les automatistes se regroupent autour du peintre Paul-Émile Borduas et sont de toutes les formes artistiques. Dû à leur position à contre-courant et très avant-gardistes, plusieurs devront s'exiler en France ou ailleurs. Ils sont aujourd'hui reconnus pour leur vision qui a participé à une transformation fondamentale de la société québécoise.
Le mouvement Dada était antibourgeois, antinationaliste et provocateur. Les surréalistes continuèrent sur cette lancée subversive. « Nous n'acceptons pas les lois de l'Économie ou de l'Échange, nous n'acceptons pas l'esclavage du Travail, et dans un domaine encore plus large nous nous déclarons en insurrection contre l'Histoire. » (tract La Révolution d'abord et toujours). Ces principes débouchent sur l'engagement politique : certains écrivains surréalistes adhèrent, temporairement, au Parti communiste français .
Aucun parti, cependant, ne répondait exactement aux aspirations des surréalistes, ce qui fut à l'origine des tensions avec le Parti communiste français. André Breton n'a pas de mots assez forts pour flétrir « l'ignoble mot d'engagement qui sue une servilité dont la poésie et l'art ont horreur. » Dès 1930, pourtant, Louis Aragon acceptait de soumettre son activité littéraire « à la discipline et au contrôle du parti communiste ». La guerre fit que Robert Desnos et Paul Eluard le suivirent dans cette voie pendant quelques années. Condamnation de l'exploitation de l'Homme par l'Homme, du militarisme, de l'oppression coloniale, des prêtres pour leur œuvre qu'ils jugent obscurantiste, et bientôt du nazisme, volonté d'une révolution sociale ; et plus tard, enfin, dénonciation du totalitarisme de l'Union Soviétique, tels sont les thèmes d'une lutte que, de la guerre du Maroc à la guerre d'Algérie, les surréalistes ont menée inlassablement. Ils ont tenté la synthèse du matérialisme historique et de l'occultisme, en se situant au carrefour de l'anarchisme, et du marxisme, fermement opposés à tous les fascismes et aux religions.
« Surréalisme : le mot est désormais victime de sa fausse popularité : on n'hésite pas à qualifier de surréaliste le premier fait un peu bizarre ou inhabituel, sans davantage se soucier de rigueur. Le surréalisme [...] est pourtant exemplaire par sa cohérence et la constance de ses exigences. »[9]
La Biographie succincte des personnalités de la constellation surréaliste[10] offre un recensement des artistes et intellectuels qui ont gravité autour du mouvement surréaliste, les conditions de leur participation et éventuellement celles de leur départ ou éloignement.
Der Surrealismus war eine Bewegung in der Literatur und der bildenden Kunst, die in der Nachfolge von Dada um 1920 in Paris entstand. Ziel war es, das Unwirkliche und Traumhafte sowie die Tiefen des Unbewussten auszuloten und den durch die menschliche Logik begrenzten Erfahrungsbereich durch das Phantastische und Absurde zu erweitern.[1]
Das Wort „Surrealismus“ bedeutet wörtlich „über dem Realismus“[2]. Etwas, das als surreal bezeichnet wird, wirkt traumhaft im Sinne von unwirklich[2]. Die vom französischen Schriftsteller und Kritiker André Breton seit 1921 in Paris geführte surrealistische Bewegung suchte die eigene Wirklichkeit des Menschen im Unbewussten und verwertete Rausch- und Traumerlebnisse als Quelle der künstlerischen Eingebung und sie bemühte sich darum, das Bewusstsein und die Wirklichkeit global zu erweitern und alle geltenden Werte umzustürzen. Sie ist daher eine anarchistische, revolutionäre Kunst- und Weltauffassung.
Die Bezeichnung „Surrealismus“ geht auf Guillaume Apollinaire zurück, dessen Theaterstück Les Mamelles de Tirésias (Die Brüste des Tiresias) den Untertitel „ein surrealistisches Drama“ trägt. Es wurde im Juni 1917 uraufgeführt und gab der Bewegung den Namen.[3] Ausgehend von der dadaistischen Bewegung in Paris stellte auch der Surrealismus eine aufrührerische Kunstbewegung dar, die gegen die unglaubwürdigen Werte der Bourgeoisie antrat, im Gegensatz zum negativ-destruktivistischen Dadaismus jedoch eine konstruktivere Sicht der Dinge propagierte. Beeinflusst vom Symbolismus, Expressionismus, Futurismus, den Schriften Lautréamonts, Alfred Jarrys und den Forschungen Sigmund Freuds stellt der Surrealismus eine nichtrationale und die Gefühle betonende Welt des Traums in den Vordergrund, lehnt jedoch logisch-rationale „bürgerliche“ Kunstauffassungen radikal und provokativ ab. Der Surrealismus verbreitete die Befreiung der „Wörter“ und eine Ästhetik der „kühnen Metapher“.
Man kann den Surrealismus in zwei Unterarten unterteilen:
Der Surrealismus wurde von Max Ernst und André Breton im Jahr 1919 gewissermaßen erfunden; in seinem Buch über den Surrealismus zitiert Gaétan Picon Bretons Die verlorenen Schritte: Auftritt der Medien wie folgt:[4]: „Im Jahre 1919 hatte sich mein Augenmerk auf die mehr oder weniger unvollständigen Sätze gerichtet, die bei völliger Einsamkeit und herannahendem Schlaf dem Geist wahrnehmbar werden, ohne dass es möglich wäre, eine vorherige Bestimmung in ihnen zu entdecken.“
Max Ernst schrieb in seiner Veröffentlichung Jenseits der Malerei im Jahr 1936: „An einem regnerischen Tag des Jahres 1919, in einer Stadt am Rhein, fiel mir auf, mit welcher Besessenheit mein irritiertes Auge an den Seiten eines Bilderkataloges haftete, in dem Gegenstände zur anthropologischen, mikroskopischen, psychologischen, mineralogischen und paläontologischen Veranschaulichung abgebildet waren. Dort standen Bildelemente nebeneinander, die einander so fremd waren, dass gerade die Sinnlosigkeit dieses Nebeneinanders eine plötzliche Verschärfung der visionären Kräfte in mir verursachte, und eine halluzinierende Folge widersprüchlicher […] Bilder wachgerufen wurde […].“
1922 übernahm Breton die Leitung der Pariser Dada-Publikation Littérature. Im selben Jahr rief er den Congrès de Paris ins Leben, um eine Richtung für die verschiedenen Formen der modernen Kunst vorzugeben. Der Kongress, mit parlamentarischer Satzung, sollte unter Polizeischutz stattfinden. Breton meinte, „daß der Dadaismus keinem anderen Zweck gedient haben kann als dem, uns in dem vollkommenen Zustand der Verfügbarkeit zu halten, in dem wir gegenwärtig sind und aus dem heraus wir jetzt in aller Klarheit auf das zugehen werden, was uns ruft.“[5] Für Tristan Tzara stellte Bretons Vorgehen einen Affront dar, weshalb er die Einladung zum Kongress „in aller Freundlichkeit“ ablehnte. Breton wiederum ging nun Tzara öffentlich scharf an und bezeichnete ihn „als einen Schwindler, der nichts mit der Erfindung Dada zu tun habe.“ Der Vorfall artete zu einer Zerreissprobe der Mitglieder aus und bedeutete quasi das Ende der Dada-Bewegung.
In einer Julinacht im Jahr 1923 kam es schließlich im Pariser Théâtre Michel zu Handgreiflichkeiten, als Tristan Tzaras Schauspiel Le Cœur à Gaz aufgeführt werden sollte. Tzaras frühere Freunde Louis Aragon, Benjamin Péret und Breton stürmten die Bühne und griffen die Darsteller an.[6]
Breton veröffentlichte 1924 sein „erstes surrealistisches Manifest“ in Paris und dominierte in der Folge die Bewegung. Für die Dauer der Bewegung blieb das Manifest maßgebend, im sogenannten „zweiten surrealistischen Manifest“ von 1929 wurden nur geringfügige Änderungen vorgenommen.[6] Die Zeitschrift Litterature wurde eingestellt, um La Revolution Surréaliste, dem Forum der neuen Bewegung, Platz zu machen. Ein „Büro für surrealistische Forschungen“ in der rue de Grenelle 15 rundete die Institutionalisierung ab.[7]
Die Bilder der Surrealisten haben oft traumhafte und abstrakte Wirkung. Ein vielbehandeltes Bildthema der surrealistischen Malerei ist beispielsweise Die Versuchung des Heiligen Antonius, unterstützt durch den Bel-Ami-Wettbewerb von 1946, an dem viele bekannte Künstler der Zeit, wie Max Ernst, Salvador Dalí und viele andere teilnahmen.
Bevorzugte Arbeitsweisen waren: Das Bewusstsein durch Traum, Schlaf oder Rauschmittel abschalten und Unbewusstes in einem automatischen, nicht gesteuerten Schaffungsprozess zum Ausdruck kommen lassen sowie eine übergenaue Malweise, Verfremdung oder Kombination unmöglicher Dinge und Zustände, welche die Wirklichkeit übersteigen.
Das Verfahren, mit dem schreibend und zeichnend experimentiert wurde, war das Automatische Schreiben (Écriture automatique), das spontan und ohne Einschränkungen des Bewusstseins sein sollte. In gewollter Trance und in Traumprotokollen sollten Ängste und Begierden ohne Zensur des Bewußtseins deutlich werden und Figuren ohne Erinnerung an bereits vorhandene Bilder freisetzen.[8]
Politische Streitigkeiten trugen zur Auflösung der Gruppe der Surrealisten nach 1928/29 bei. Seinen Höhepunkt hatte diese Auseinandersetzung 1930 mit Bretons „Zweitem surrealistischen Manifest“, in welchem dieser auf eine klare Stellungnahme der Künstler gegen den sich ausbreitenden Faschismus in Europa hinwirken wollte[9]. Trotz einer Wiederbelebung während der Jahre der Résistance (1940–44) kann nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg von einer surrealistischen Bewegung kaum noch die Rede sein. Unter dem französischen Einfluss fasste der Surrealismus besonders in Spanien und in den Vereinigten Staaten Fuß. Auch im deutschen Sprachraum wurden surrealistische literarische Texte von Autoren wie Alfred Kubin, Hermann Kasack u. a. geschrieben. Der Surrealismus hat auch in der Literatur seinen Einzug erhalten. Dort konnte mit Hilfe von literarischen Impulsen aus der deutschen Romantik und des französischen Symbolismus und unter der Einbeziehung der zeitgenössischen Wissenschaften, wie Psychiatrie und Psychoanalyse die Literatur als Medium der Weltveränderung und Selbsterkenntnis neu definiert werden. So hat der Surrealismus eine nachhaltige Wirkung auf verschiedenste Werke zeitgenössischer Kunst und Literatur, wie zum Beispiel auf die seit etwa 1950 entstandene konkrete und abstrakte Dichtung.
Texte und Ideen von René Magritte hatten später großen Einfluss auf die Konzeptkunst, z. B. Marcel Broodthaers. Die Situationisten beriefen sich in den 1960-er Jahren bei ihrem Angriff auf die Wirklichkeit auch auf die Surrealisten.
Heute wird jeder Stil als surrealistisch bezeichnet, der Reales mit Traumhaftem oder Mystischem verbindet. So beansprucht auch das Irreale oder der sinnlose Zusammenhang den gleichen selbstverständlichen Realitätscharakter, wie die alltägliche Wirklichkeit, die selbst oft surreal oder absurd scheint. Surrealistische Bild- und Traumwelten haben durch Werbung und Massenmedien als kommerzielle Produkte den Weg in den Alltag gefunden (z. B. zeitgenössisches Spielzeug). Doch auch in der zeitgenössischen Malerei ist der Surrealismus (wieder) lebendig.
Maxime Alexandre (1932 ausgeschlossen), Louis Aragon (1932 ausg.), Jean Arp, Antonin Artaud (1926 ausg.), Jacques Baron, Georges Bataille (1929 ausg.), Victor Brauner, André Breton, Luis Buñuel, Claude Cahun, Leonora Carrington, René Char, Achille Chavée, Giorgio de Chirico, René Crevel, Salvador Dali (1934 ausg.), Robert Desnos, Oscar Dominguez, Marcel Duhamel, Paul Éluard (1938 ausg.), Max Ernst (1954 ausg.), Camille Goemans, Irène Hamoir, Wifredo Lam, Jacqueline Lamba, Michel Leiris, Gilbert Lely, Georges Limbour, René Magritte, Marcel Mariën, Joyce Mansour, André Masson, Roberto Matta (1948 ausg.), E. L. T. Mesens, Joan Miró, Max Morise (1929 ausg.), Paul Nash, Pierre Naville, Vítězslav Nezval, Paul Nougé, Meret Oppenheim, Wolfgang Paalen, Roland und Valentine Penrose, Benjamin Péret, Francis Picabia, Gisèle Prassinos, Jacques Prévert (1930 selbst ausgetreten), Raymond Queneau (1930 ausg.), Alice Rahon, Man Ray, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes, Hans Richter, Robert Rius, Louis Scutenaire, Kurt Seligmann, Philippe Soupault (1926 ausg.), André Souris, Shuzo Takiguchi, Georges Spiro, Yves Tanguy, Toyen, Tristan Tzara, Pierre Unik (1932 ausg.), Remedios Varo, Roger Vitrac (1926 ausg.); Emil Cioran, Gellu Naum
„Ich glaube an die künftige Auflösung dieser scheinbar so gegensätzlichen Zustände von Traum und Wirklichkeit in einer Art absoluter Realität, wenn man so sagen kann: Surrealität. Nach ihrer Eroberung strebe ich, sicher, sie nicht zu erreichen, zu unbekümmert jedoch um meinen Tod, um nicht zumindest die Freuden eines solchen Besitzes abzuwägen.“
– André Breton: Erstes Manifest des Surrealismus (1924)
„Er ist schön […] wie die zufällige Begegnung eines Regenschirmes mit einer Nähmaschine auf dem Seziertisch.“
– Lautréamont: Die Gesänge des Maldoror VI,3 (1869)
Der Comte de Lautréamont gilt als „Großvater“ des Surrealismus, André Gide sah es als bedeutendsten Verdienst von Louis Aragon, André Breton und Philippe Soupault an, seine „literarische und ultraliterarische Bedeutung“ erkannt und verkündet zu haben. 1920 nahm Man Ray die berühmt gewordene Stelle aus dem 6. Gesang als Ausgangspunkt für sein Werk „The Enigma of Isidore Ducasse“ (Das Geheimnis des Isidore Ducasse). „Die Gesänge des Maldoror“ inspirierten zahlreiche weitere surrealistische Künstler, darunter Salvador Dalí, Rene Magritte, Victor Brauner, Oscar Dominguez, Joan Miró und Yves Tanguy. In unmittelbarer Anlehnung an Lautréamonts „zufällige Begegnung“ hat Max Ernst die Struktur des surrealistischen Bildes definiert: „Accouplement de deux réalités en apparence inaccouplables sur un plan qui en apparence ne leur convient pas.”
siehe: Surrealistischer Film
Die Klassiker des surrealistischen Films sind Ein andalusischer Hund (Un chien andalou) und Das goldene Zeitalter (L'Âge d'Or) von Luis Buñuel und Salvador Dalí. Letzterer verursachte bei seiner Aufführung im Jahre 1930 einen Skandal, als rechtsgerichtete Gruppierungen Farbbeutel gegen die Leinwand warfen und surrealistische Bilder zerstörten. Zur Aufrechterhaltung der Ruhe wurde der Film für Jahrzehnte verboten.
Antonin Artaud, Philippe Soupault und Robert Desnos schrieben Drehbücher für surrealistische Filme. Alfred Hitchcock ließ eine Traumsequenz seines Films Spellbound („Ich kämpfe um dich“) von Salvador Dali gestalten. Verwandtschaft zeigen die Filme von Viking Eggeling, Hans Richter und Fernand Léger.
Filme der surrealistischen Bewegung:
Die surrealistische Ästhetik wurde später auch von Spielfilm-Regisseuren aufgegriffen, etwa von Alain Resnais (Letztes Jahr in Marienbad) und Glauber Rocha, aber auch wieder von Luis Buñuel (El ángel exterminador, 1962; Der diskrete Charme der Bourgeoisie, 1972; Das Gespenst der Freiheit, 1974). Alejandro Jodorowskys Filme sind stark vom Surrealismus beeinflusst: Fando y Lis (1967), El Topo (1971), Der heilige Berg (1973), Santa Sangre (1989). Als bekannter aktueller Vertreter kann David Lynch angesehen werden, viele seine Filme (z. B. Eraserhead, 1976 oder Lost Highway, 1997) haben einen surrealen Charakter. Eine traumartige Atmosphäre lässt immer wieder die Grenzen zwischen Realität und Imagination zerfließen (auch in Mulholland Drive, 2001).
Filme mit tw. surrealistischen Zügen: J'irai Comme Un Cheval Fou von Fernando Arrabal (1973); Celine and Julie Go Boating von Jacques Rivette (1974); Possession von Andrzej Żuławski (1981); Motorama von Barry Shils (1991); Serial Experiments Lain von Yoshitoshi ABe (1998); Songs from the Second Floor von Roy Andersson (2000), Cat Soup von Tatsuo Sato (2001)
Post-Breton-Surrealismus [Bearbeiten]Obwohl die Bezeichnung „Surrealismus“ historisch die Künstlergruppe um Breton meint, gibt es auch in der Nachfolge viele andere Gruppen und Einzelpersonen, die den Namen aufgenommen haben.
Bereits 1947 gründete Christian Dotremont die kurzlebige Revolutionary Surrealist Group; 1948 schloss er sich mit Asger Jorn und mehreren anderen Künstlern zu der Gruppe COBRA zusammen. Parallel zu COBRA entwickelte sich in Frankreich um Isidore Isou der vom Surrealismus beeinflusste Lettrismus.
Mitglieder dieser verschiedenen Gruppierungen schlossen sich schließlich in den 1950er Jahren zu der Situationistischen Internationalen zusammen, die ein komplexes Verhältnis zum Surrealismus aufrechterhielt. Einige Situationisten wie Asger Jorn, Charles Radcliffe und Raoul Vaneigem waren offen erkennbar vom Surrealismus beeinflusst und reflektieren diesen, während andere wie Guy Debord sich davon distanzierten. Während surrealistische Techniken noch ein Bestandteil des Konzeptes waren, war der politische Anspruch im Situationismus oftmals vorrangig.
Ähnlich politisch motiviert war die 1966 gegründete Chicago Surrealist Group [10]. Auch im Europas entstanden in der zweiten Hälfte des 20ten Jahrhunderts Künstlergruppierungen wie die polnische Orange Alternative, die surrealistische Konzepte in politischen Aktionen umsetzten.
Aktuell beziehen sich zahlreiche Gruppen wie das International Massurrealism Movement, das OFFAL Project in New York oder die Surrealist London Action Group explizit auf surrealistische Ideen. Auch in der Malerei werden surrealistische Motive und Techniken weiterhin aufgegriffen, wie beispielsweise durch Wolfgang Lettl und Frank Kortan.
All
my works in digital and traditional I'm
an oil and digital painter. I look for painting what I have into my
mind, the solitude, the frozen time, the eternity, the pure frozen
emotions.
I don't "design" my work, I just see it inside my mind and translate it
into this "real" world.
Each
work I do has its own medium and style of expresion, because of it my
"style" change depending of the work, I paint in full color, in one
color, in black & white, or in the style the work is seen into my
mind.
I really paint only for myself, I need to do it, but if somebody likes
and understand my work, it makes me very happy.
In this site I show museum quality prints of my work, I hope you like
it.
I
have been juried and I have sell my works in Affordable Art London and
other shows, but Right now I only sell my work through Discoveredartist.
I want to paint the
solitude, the eternity, the frozen time.
http://metaphysical-art.deviantart.com/
My name is Nacho Frades,
and Frades Nacho is too my name...
